Integrated carbon dioxide capture

ABSTRACT

A method/system for sequestering carbon dioxide from cement and lime production facilities wherein carbon dioxide from flue gases originating from cement or lime production facilities is recovered and transported to a building materials production facility where it is sequestered.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/976,360, filed Apr. 7, 2014, which application is incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Worldwide production of cement resulted in 3.6 billion tons of cement produced in 2012 and 1.7 billion tons of carbon dioxide released during the production of that cement. There is a need to efficiently sequester some or all of the carbon dioxide released in the production of cement. Concrete consumption was conservatively estimated to exceed 15 billion tons in 2012, although no precise records are available. The total amount of carbon dioxide emitted to produce one ton of cement will vary depending on the type of process, raw materials, and fuel combusted, but is roughly about 600-800 kg of CO₂/ton of cement produced.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Cement and lime production releases CO₂ gas by two mechanisms; the calcination of limestone in the raw materials and the combustion of fuels used in the cement and lime manufacturing processes. For this reason, the flue gases from cement and lime production are some of the richest sources of flue gas carbon dioxide. At present this carbon dioxide is generally vented to the atmosphere.

Because of these two sources, the carbon dioxide content of flue gas from cement and lime manufacture may be 14-33% by volume, compared to 4% for a natural gas fired combined cycle power plant and 9-15% for a coal fired power plant. Higher concentrations of CO₂ in the flue gas generally require lower costs for capture of the CO₂.

The present invention provides integrated methods and compositions for integrating carbon dioxide from cement and lime manufacture and their respective flue gases back into manufacturing processes, such as the cement or concrete manufacturing process; for example, incorporating the carbon dioxide into building products and other products that incorporate a mineral binder, e.g., a cement binder such as Portland cement, that provides minerals, e.g. calcium, magnesium, sodium, and/or potassium minerals such as CaO, MgO, Na₂O, and/or K₂O that react with the carbon dioxide to form carbonate (CO₂) bonded products at the building product end of the method or system. Although any binder that provides sufficient minerals and other components to be converted to mineral carbonates upon application of carbon dioxide may be used, for convenience the methods and systems will be described in terms of cements, such as Portland cement. Alternative or additional uses of the carbon dioxide include cooling concrete mixes, e.g., with liquid carbon dioxide, and/or treating process water, for example, to adjust pH to an acceptable level.

In certain embodiments, the invention provides an integrated approach, in which carbon dioxide released from the production of cement at a cement manufacturing facility is used in the process itself, for example, converted to a stable carbonate form, such as a calcium or magnesium carbonate or other carbonate form, in a building material, thus lowering overall carbon dioxide emissions and providing for greater efficiency in the collection, transport, and use of carbon dioxide in the building materials. It is possible with the integrated approach of the invention, that the same carbon dioxide that was released during production of a cement, such as a Portland cement, and used in a building product will be recaptured in the building product during carbonation. However, the carbon dioxide from the cement manufacturing process may also be used in other types of building products that don't contain the cement produced at the specific facility. In addition or alternatively, the carbon dioxide may be used in other aspects of the manufacturing process, such as in cooling concrete and/or treatment of process water.

Cement and lime production is universal and fairly evenly distributed around North America and the world. Cement production stays fairly close to concrete usage due to the relatively high cost of shipping. Thus, in the integrated approach of the invention, transportation costs for the CO₂ are minimized, as it is produced at the cement manufacturing facility and may be used at a concrete production facility within a short distance.

The cement and lime manufacturing facilities may utilize any suitable manufacturing process so long as a flue gas is produced at one or more points from which carbon dioxide may be concentrated and separated. In certain embodiments the cement and lime manufacturing processes may include rotary kilns. In certain embodiments, the cement and lime manufacturing processes may include preheaters. In certain embodiments the cement manufacturing process may include a precalcination vessel (Precalciner).

Carbon dioxide may be concentrated and/or extracted from the cement and lime manufacturing processes by any suitable method, such as pre-combustion, oxy-combustion, and post-combustion methods. Any suitable method that generates carbon dioxide of sufficient concentration and purity can be used for the production of building materials.

In certain embodiments the CO₂ gas stream may be concentrated before extraction by such means as oxy-combustion and/or indirect calcination. In certain embodiments the CO₂ gas stream may be concentrated due to pre-combustion technologies such as the use of metal oxides, etc. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is separated post-combustion. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is separated by use of solid or liquid sorbents, for example, carbonate looping or amine sorbents. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is separated by use of membranes. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is separated by use of cryogenic technology. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is separated by carbonate looping. Any such means of concentrating and extracting a CO₂ gas stream from the cement and lime manufacturing processes may be used.

In certain embodiments the CO₂ may already be available in a sufficiently concentrated form. These embodiments include the potential use of pre-combustion technologies, oxy-combustion, indirect calcination, etc. In addition, various parts of the cement and lime manufacturing processes produce higher concentrations of carbon dioxide that may be more easily extractable. In particular, in certain embodiments of the invention carbon dioxide is separated from the kiln or preheater flue gas, such as gas from the kiln or preheater exit before or after the kiln/preheater exhaust fan. In these embodiments, the gas may be cleaned, e.g., in a fabric filter, and or cooled to an adequate temperature before further processing. If necessary, additional impurities may be removed at this point. A preferred embodiment utilizes the flue gas with the highest concentration of CO₂ and the lowest cost for additional treatment, such as the preheater exhaust gas at the discharge of the exhaust fan.

The concentration and the purity of the carbon dioxide need be no greater than that required by the process in which the carbon dioxide is introduced into the building materials, and/or used in other processes in cement or concrete manufacturing. In general, it is not necessary to achieve food grade carbon dioxide quality. In certain embodiments, a carbon dioxide content of greater than 60%, such as greater than 80%, for example, greater than 90%, with a level of other elements, such as SOx, low enough so as not to interfere with the reuse of the CO₂, for example, its introduction into a building product, or use in treating process water, is sufficient. For example, when used in the manufacture of building products, any suitable carbon dioxide content and purity may be used, as long as the quality of the building product is sufficient for its intended purpose, e.g., use of Portland cement in making concrete or mortar.

In certain embodiments, only a portion of the flue gas from the manufacturing processes is used in a treatment process to separate useable carbon dioxide from the flue gas. The portion of flue gas treated may be less than 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2% of the total flue gas produced by the cement or lime manufacturing process. In certain embodiments, the portion of the flue gas treated is less than 10%, for example, less than 7%, such as less than 6%. In certain embodiments, the portion of the flue gas treated to separate carbon dioxide is 1-90%, or 1-70%, or 1-50%, or 1-30%, or 1-20%, or 1-10%. In certain embodiments, the portion of the flue gas treated is 1-10%. In certain embodiments, the portion of the flue gas treated is 1-8%. In certain embodiments, the portion of the flue gas treated is 1-6%. In certain embodiments, the portion of the flue gas treated is 2-8%. In certain embodiments, the portion of the flue gas treated is 2-6%.

In some cases, impurities which normally would be removed before the flue gas is vented to the atmosphere may remain present in the CO₂ separated from the flue gas; if these are not harmful to the process of making and/or using the building product, e.g., cement/concrete, into which the CO₂ will be introduced. Impurities can include NOx, SOx, HCl, dust, metals, CO and/or volatile organic compounds (VOCs). It can therefore be advantageous to leave them in the CO₂ separated from the flue gas; for example, if the carbon dioxide is used in producing building materials, in many cases these constituents will themselves become sequestered in the building product, e.g., cement/concrete, into which the CO₂ is introduced, e.g., by chemical reaction to produce relatively inert substances and/or by physical entrapment. In either case, it may be possible to avoid the expense of cleaning the flue gas which would otherwise be required, or use a minimal cleaning.

The efficiency of the process is increased over use of purchased carbon dioxide because of reduced transportation costs, and in addition, energy costs in the production of the carbon dioxide may be lower than in typical carbon dioxide extraction processes because waste heat from the cement or lime production process can be used in the extraction, concentration, or other treatment of the flue gas. Thus, in certain embodiments of the invention, waste heat from the cement and lime manufacturing processes may be used in various processes involved in the concentration, extraction, and/or other treatment of the flue gases. Heat sources include; the waste heat from the preheater exit gases and/or the cooler vent air, radiant heat from the rotary kilns, etc. In certain embodiments, waste heat from a preheater is used in the concentration and/or extraction of carbon dioxide from flue gas. In certain embodiments, waste heat from a cooler is used in the concentration and/or extraction of carbon dioxide from flue gas. In certain embodiments, waste heat from both a preheater and a cooler is used in the concentration and/or extraction of carbon dioxide from flue gas.

Depending on the separation technology and the transport requirements, the carbon dioxide produced may be gas, liquid, solid, or supercritical. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is primarily or entirely gaseous. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is primarily or entirely liquid. Liquid carbon dioxide offers the advantage of easy and efficient transport, and in some cases the carbon dioxide used in the production of building materials is required to be in liquid form. In addition, where cooling of concrete or concrete materials is desired, liquid carbon dioxide is a useful coolant source.

Various processes have been proposed for the capture of carbon dioxide in building products, for example, capturing carbon dioxide in products that comprise a mineral binder, such as a cement, e.g., Portland cement, that contains calcium in an environment such that carbon dioxide will react with the calcium to form calcium carbonate. The carbon dioxide used may be from any source.

Any suitable separation technology may be used; many such technologies are known in the art and any technology that produces a product of sufficient carbon dioxide concentration and, if appropriate, sufficiently low impurities, to be used in the desired processes in cement and/or concrete production, for example, the production of stable carbonates, and/or cooling concrete or concrete components, and/or treating process water, may be used.

An exemplary technology is cryogenic separation; this is exemplary only and not limiting to the type of separation technology used. In one such cryogenic separation process the flue gas stream is dried and cooled, then modestly compressed and cooled to slightly above the frost point of CO₂. The gas is then expanded, further cooling the stream and precipitating solid CO₂, which is separated from the remaining flue gas. The pure solid CO₂ stream is the further pressurized to a liquid state. The cooled CO₂ and N₂ can be used in a heat exchanger to cool incoming flue gas. The final result is the CO₂ in liquid phase and a gaseous stream comprised primarily of nitrogen. The liquid CO₂ may be generated and stored at the producing site, and transported as needed to a site where building products are produced, e.g., concrete. Transport may be by any suitable method, such as by road or rail, or pipeline, or a combination thereof. Pipelines can be used for both gaseous and liquid carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide may be transported as solid, gas, liquid, or any suitable combination thereof. The choice of transport form can depend on the intended final use.

The CO₂, e.g., liquid CO₂, may be transported to the site of use, e.g., a building products production facility. In general, such a building products facility will use the cement and/or lime produced in the cement or lime manufacturing processes from which the carbon dioxide was obtained; such building material facilities are often close to the cement and/or lime manufacturing facilities, such that the carbon dioxide is transported less than 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, or 50 miles. Thus, in certain embodiments, carbon dioxide is concentrated and/or extracted from a flue gas at a first facility, e.g., a cement and/or lime production facility and transported no more than 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, or 50 miles, to a second facility that is a concrete production facility, and used in one or more processes in the second facility, such as in carbonation of concrete, treatment of process water, and/or cooling of concrete or a concrete component. Exemplary facilities are ready mix concrete batching facilities and precast concrete facilities. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is used in the process of producing a building product, such as concrete or precast concrete products. The CO₂ may be used at any suitable stage of the process of producing the building product, e.g., during mixing of the concrete, where it may be introduced into the mixing concrete, such as in a ready mix operation or a precast operation; or post-mixing but upstream from a mold in a precast facility, e.g., in a hopper, or feedbox, or introduced into a stream of concrete moving from hopper to feedbox or feedbox to mold; or at the mold itself, or any combination thereof. In certain embodiments liquid CO₂ derived from flue gas at a cement or lime manufacturing facility is introduced into mixing concrete, e.g., concrete containing at least a portion of the cement produced at the cement manufacturing facility. This is, in a sense, a calcium carbonate cycle, with carbon dioxide released from calcium carbonate (limestone) at the cement or lime manufacturing facility and reconverted to calcium carbonate in the concrete (or any other building material comprising the necessary minerals, e.g., calcium, to react with the carbon dioxide). Details of use of carbon dioxide in concrete and concrete materials may be found in U.S. patent applications Ser. No. 13/660,447; PCT/CA 2014050611, filed Jun. 25, 2014; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/249,308, filed Apr. 9, 2014; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application 61/992,089, filed May 12, 2014; all of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

Carbon dioxide obtained from cement and/or lime production may additionally, or alternatively, be used in other aspects of the process of production of building materials. For example, in concrete production, process water is produced in various stages of the production and packaging process, such as truck cleanout and other processes, where the process water has a high pH that must be reduced before the water can be discharged. Current treatment methods include the use of HCl, but the process is difficult to control and has safety issues involved with handling a concentrated acid. An alternative method utilizes carbon dioxide addition to the process water. The carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid, a weak acid, that is converted to bicarbonate and ultimately carbonate (e.g., calcium carbonate). As the pH is lowered by these reactions, it eventually reaches 7 or 8, and the precipitated calcium carbonate dissolves, creating calcium bicarbonate. Because of the pKas of the various reactions, the system is buffered and it is easier to achieve the desired pH for discharge. Thus, certain embodiments provide treatment of process water from a manufacturing process that produces high-pH process water, such as concrete manufacture, with carbon dioxide produced in lime and/or cement manufacture to lower the pH of the process water. The carbon dioxide from the lime and/or cement manufacture may constitute any suitable proportion of the total carbon dioxide used in the water treatment process, such as at least 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or 99% of the carbon dioxide used in the water treatment process, and/or not more than 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, or 100% of the carbon dioxide used in the water treatment process.

An additional or alternative use of carbon dioxide from lime or cement production is in cooling components of concrete, or concrete itself This can be especially important when concrete is manufactured in warm temperatures, as concrete can be too hot when produced conventionally, so producers cool the raw materials and/or mixed concrete using ice or liquefied gases. Chilled carbon dioxide, e.g., as a gas, solid, liquid, or combination thereof, may be used in one or more aspects of these processes. For example, certain processes for chilling aggregate may use liquid nitrogen or liquid carbon dioxide, sprayed into a cylinder containing aggregate, to cool the aggregate before its use in the manufacture of concrete. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,220,732. In other processes, a chilled fluid, such as liquid nitrogen, argon, oxygen, chilled water, or carbon dioxide is applied directly to a mixing concrete mix to cool the temperature of the mix; it will be appreciated that if carbon dioxide is the cooling fluid, carbonation of the mix is likely to occur. In addition, it is possible to apply both gaseous and solid carbon dioxide, produced from liquid carbon dioxide, to a concrete mix or a component of a concrete mix, to achieve both carbonation and cooling. See, e.g., U.S. Patent No. 8,235,576; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2014 0216303; and PCT Patent Application No. PCT/CA 2014050611, filed Jun. 25, 2014. Thus, certain embodiments provide treatment of a concrete component, such as aggregates, or concrete, with carbon dioxide produced in lime and/or cement manufacture to lower the temperature of the component. The carbon dioxide from the lime and/or cement manufacture may constitute any suitable proportion of the total carbon dioxide used in the concrete or concrete component treatment process, such as at least 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or 99% of the carbon dioxide used in the concrete or concrete component treatment process, and/or not more than 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, or 100% of the carbon dioxide used in the concrete or concrete component treatment process. In certain embodiments, the process is a process of cooling aggregate to be used in a concrete production process to a desired temperature. In certain embodiments, the process is a process of cooling a concrete mix.

The carbon dioxide may be used in cement or concrete production processes, e.g., the production of building materials at low pressures, treatment of process water, and/or cooling of concrete or concrete components, e.g., at a pressure of 0-25 psi, or 0-50 psi, or 0-100 psi; alternatively, the carbon dioxide may be used at high pressure, e.g., at a pressure of greater than 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400, or 500 psi, depending on the desired use.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of sequestering carbon dioxide from a cement manufacturing facility comprising i) treating flue gas comprising carbon dioxide from the discharge of a preheater exhaust fan at the cement kiln to render the carbon dioxide transportable, e.g., concentrating the carbon dioxide; ii) transporting the carbon dioxide to a building materials production facility; and iii) performing at least one operation of treating one or more building materials with the carbon dioxide in such a manner as to permanently sequester the carbon dioxide; treating a process water produced in the building materials facility with the carbon dioxide to lower a pH of the process water, or treating concrete or a concrete component at the building materials production facility to cool the concrete or component. In certain embodiments, at least two of the operations are performed with the carbon dioxide at the building materials production facility. In certain embodiments, all three of the operations are performed with the carbon dioxide at the building materials production facility. In general less than the entire exhaust flue gas of the preheater is treated to render the carbon dioxide transportable, for example, less than 50%, or less than 40%, or less than 30%, or less than 20%, or less than 10% of the total flue gas produced by the preheater. The transportable carbon dioxide may be liquid carbon dioxide, solid carbon dioxide, or gaseous carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof, and transported by road, rail, or pipeline (liquid and gaseous carbon dioxide) to the building materials production facility. The building materials production facility can be a ready mix facility or a precast facility, and in some cases the cement used at the facility includes the cement produced at the cement manufacturing facility; thus, the entire loop of separation of carbon dioxide and its use in a building material may occur within a radius of less than 500, 400, 200, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 miles. If the carbon dioxide is mostly or entirely liquid, it may be used in the production of the building materials in liquid form or, in some cases, in liquid form that is converted upon release to mixing building material to solid and gaseous forms. In some cases, the carbon dioxide may alternatively, or additionally, be introduced into a building material, e.g., concrete, under pressure, such as when the concrete is pumped through a conduit at a building site. Admixtures may also be introduced into the concrete treated with the carbon dioxide from the cement kiln to modulate, e.g., flowability and/or early strength development.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of sequestering carbon dioxide from a cement kiln comprising i) treating flue gas comprising carbon dioxide from the cement kiln to render the carbon dioxide transportable in liquid form; ii) transporting the carbon dioxide to a building materials production facility; and iii) treating one or more building materials with the liquid carbon dioxide in such a manner as to permanently sequester the carbon dioxide.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of sequestering carbon dioxide from a cement kiln comprising i) treating flue gas comprising carbon dioxide from the cement kiln to render the carbon dioxide transportable; ii) transporting the carbon dioxide to a concrete production facility; and iii) treating a wet concrete mix at the concrete production facility with the carbon dioxide to sequester the carbon dioxide in a concrete product.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of sequestering carbon dioxide from a cement kiln comprising i) treating flue gas comprising carbon dioxide from the cement kiln to render the carbon dioxide transportable; ii) transporting the carbon dioxide to a precast concrete production facility; and iii) treating a precast object comprising a cement binder with the carbon dioxide, wherein the treatment with carbon dioxide occurs upstream of a curing operation.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of sequestering carbon dioxide from a cement kiln comprising i) treating flue gas comprising carbon dioxide from the cement kiln to render the carbon dioxide transportable; ii) transporting the carbon dioxide to a building materials production facility; and iii) treating one or more building materials with the carbon dioxide to permanently sequester the carbon dioxide wherein the carbon dioxide is contacted with the building material at a pressure of 0-25 psi. In certain embodiments, the carbon dioxide is contacted with the building material at high pressure, for example, greater than 100, or greater than 200, or greater than 300 psi.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a system for integrating carbon dioxide supply and utilization comprising i) a cement kiln comprising a flue gas exit; ii) an apparatus operably connected to the flue gas exit configured to convert carbon dioxide in the flue gas into transportable form; iii) a transport apparatus for transporting the carbon dioxide; iv) a building materials facility configured to use the carbon dioxide in one or more building materials in such a manner as to permanently sequester the carbon dioxide; and v) a transport path connecting the cement kiln and the building materials facility, wherein the transport path is of sufficient strength to allow the transport apparatus to move over it from the cement kiln to the building materials production facility, and wherein the transport path is at least 5 km long. The transport path may be, e.g., a pipeline, a road or a railroad.

In any of these embodiments, the carbon dioxide from the cement kiln may additionally or alternatively be used in treating a process water produced in the building materials facility with the carbon dioxide to lower a pH of the process water, or treating concrete or a concrete component at the building materials production facility to cool the concrete or component. In certain embodiments, at least two of the operations are performed with the carbon dioxide at the building materials production facility. In certain embodiments, all three of the operations are performed with the carbon dioxide at the building materials production facility

While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby. 

1.-9. (canceled)
 10. A system comprising: (1) a cement kiln comprising a flue gas exit; (2) an apparatus operably connected to the flue gas exit configured to convert carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the flue gas into transportable form; (3) a transport apparatus for transporting the CO2; (4) a building materials facility configured to use the CO₂ in a concrete or concrete component in such a manner as to permanently sequester the CO₂; and (5) a transport path connecting the cement kiln and the building materials facility.
 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the cement and/or lime production facility and the building materials production facility are the same.
 12. The system of claim 10, wherein the cement kiln comprises a rotary kiln.
 13. The system of claim 10, wherein the transportable form of carbon dioxide comprises liquid CO₂.
 14. The system of claim 10, wherein the cement kiln is configured to produce a flue gas comprising concentration of CO₂ in the flue gas is 14-33% by volume.
 15. The system of claim 10, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises hydraulic cement.
 16. The system of claim 10, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises aggregates.
 17. The system of claim 10, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises process water.
 18. A system comprising: (1) an apparatus configured to transport carbon dioxide (CO₂) produced at a cement and/or lime production facility to a building materials production facility; and (2) an apparatus configured to treat a concrete or concrete component at the building materials production facility with the CO₂ in such a manner as to permanently sequester the CO₂ in the concrete or concrete component, wherein (1) and (2) are operably connected.
 19. The system of claim 18, further comprising an apparatus configured to treat flue gas comprising CO₂ from a cement and/or lime manufacturing process of a cement and/or lime production facility to render the CO₂ transportable, operably connected to (1).
 20. The system of claim 18, wherein the cement and/or lime production facility and the building materials production facility are the same.
 21. The system of claim 18, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises a mineral binder.
 22. The system of claim 19, wherein the transportable form of CO₂ comprises liquid CO₂.
 23. The system of claim 18, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises hydraulic cement.
 24. The system of claim 18, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises aggregates.
 25. The system of claim 18, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises process water.
 26. The system of claim 18, wherein the flue gas further comprises one or more impurities.
 27. A method of sequestering one or more flue gas impurities comprising treating a concrete or concrete component with a gas comprising one or more impurities at a building material production facility, wherein the gas is produced at a cement and/or lime production facility by treating a flue gas to render the gas transportable and transporting the gas to the building material production facility.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the cement and/or lime production facility and the building materials production facility are the same.
 29. The method of claim 27, wherein impurities comprise nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), hydrochloric acid (HCl), dust, metals, carbon monoxide (CO), and/or volatile organic compounds.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the impurities comprise NOx and/or SOx.
 31. The method of claim 27, further comprising sequestering carbon dioxide (CO₂).
 32. The method of claim 27, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises mixing concrete.
 33. The method of claim 27, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises a pre-cast object.
 34. The method of claim 27, wherein the concrete or concrete component comprises process water, cement, aggregates, or a combination thereof. 